During the 12th century, the Mongol Empire was a massive empire, stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea. It was about twice as large as the Roman Empire. Genghis Khan was the last ruler of the empire, and named his third son, Ogedei, as his successor. However, Ogedei did not immediately assume power. His younger brother Tolui took on the role of regent until 1229.
Illustrative map
The Illustrative map of the Mongol Empire shows the Mongols’ geographical distribution. This map depicts cities as well as major routes. Several depictions of Mongols highlight their wealth and glory. Among them are the number of guards that surrounded the capital and the size of buildings.
It is possible to see that Mongol mapmakers employed a variety of map-making techniques. For example, some maps depict mountains and rivers, while others depict a ruled rectangle. However, the actual Banner had no regular geometric shape. This map is an example of the Mongols’ broad political interests and the way they used cartography to represent their empire.
Mongol maps were supposed to feature grids that were aligned with the cardinal directions, but the Mongols struggled with rendering measures on paper. They also used different scales. Therefore, many Mongol maps are without grids. However, those maps that included a grid did so to make a bow to cartographic basics.
Mongol mapmakers must have been aware of the Chinese and Manchu enterprises in their own country. In order to comply with these edicts, they had to adapt their maps to their own culture. Their methods included using indigenous measurements of distances and geographical teachings from the Tibetan Buddhists.
The Mongol Empire spanned 24 million square kilometers or 9.27 million square miles and was the largest contiguous land empire in history. It was centered in present-day Mongolia and stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe. It also attempted to extend its influence into Southeast Asia, the Levant, and the Carpathian Mountains.
During the Mongol Empire, significant advances were made in science, mathematics, and other fields. The Mongol emperors took particular interest in astronomy, twice repairing Zhongdu’s armillary sphere, and reworking the Damingli calendar. The Mongols established a Confucian temple in Karakorum around 1236. During this time, they also developed a calendar based on the Chinese calendar.
Military organization
The Mongols were a military power with large-scale production of weapons and a well-organized organization. The army was organized into squads, companies, and gurans, each consisting of about ten warriors. These soldiers were mounted on small, sturdy horses known as mongol ponies. The Mongolians trained their warriors to ride together and attack as a unit. As a result, they developed into highly disciplined fighting units.
The Mongol army was composed of people from diverse cultures, including Turkic Uighurs and Kereyits. Its military organization was based on a decimal system of tens, hundreds, and thousands. Each detachment had a commander, a guard, and a center. The men were organized into these units according to how effective they were. To be effective, they had to show up to the assembly place in full dress and eat enough to last for several days.
The Mongol army was divided into three parts: the front, the main force, and the rear forces. These were further subdivided into special task units. The front units preceded the main forces. These were known as the “forehead,” and were composed of the best warriors. The front units also served as patrol posts, called “watch men,” who kept an eye out for danger. These soldiers were rewarded for their work by earning booty from the conquered people.
The Mongolians adapted to new forms of warfare. They became adept at siege warfare and learned to shoot from gunpowder weapons. They also developed rockets and triple-firing crossbows. In addition, they had large catapults, which were powered by torsion, counterweights, and the effort of men pulling multiple levered ropes. Some of these catapults were even mounted on ships.
Social organization
The social organization of the Mongol Empire was based on a patrilineal clan system and pastoral life. These two factors made it incompatible with the societies of advanced civilizations. The Mongols sought to impose their steppes society on their conquered subjects. This method of rule was difficult to administer since khans ruled at such distances from one another. In this way, policy meetings were hard to arrange and the Mongol unity began to break down during the 1360s.
The Mongols were a small minority in the empire. They were scattered throughout the vast empire. As a result, their social organization was not uniform. There were many different peoples living under the Mongol Empire. They lived in nomadic groups and among other groups. Their culture influenced their organization and social structures, but they were still distinct from other peoples in many ways.
Domestic animals were very important to the Mongols. They were valued for their milk and hides. They were used for livestock and as a source of supplies. They could be traded or exchanged with other families. This meant that many women were able to earn a living, and they could be useful as domestic servants.
The Mongol Empire spanned the vast expanse of Central Eurasia and contained over one million square miles. It was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206 C.E., and spread over the continent with multiple conquests. Its military-administrative system was also important for the Mongols’ aggressive campaigns. They subjugated the tribes of southern Siberia, and a large portion of the Tangut state of Xia.
Military campaigns
The Mongol Empire had a unique war-making style that used terror as a key weapon. When capturing cities, the Mongols often killed civilians including priests and animals such as dogs and cats. Those who survived were often spared and clemency was often granted.
Mongol armies generally consisted of three to five toumans, or division-sized forces of about 10,000 men. They fought in parallel columns on a broad front, maintaining contact with the enemy through mounted couriers and signaling systems. This formation allowed the Mongols to be very flexible against more powerful enemy armies. Each column would then either fix or retire, depending on the situation. By following the Mongols’ standard tactics, they were able to defeat their enemies.
The Mongol army proved to be superior to all other armies, despite the fact that they had fewer men and lower element-to-element quality. Their maneuver-oriented operational concepts combined with superior generalship and good organization meant that Mongol armies often won battles despite inferior numbers. They also exploited their superior mobility, which often provided them with an advantage at the decisive moment of battle.
The military organization of the Mongol Empire was simple, and based on an age-old steppe tradition. The unit of ten men (arbans) was organized into companies, which in turn formed regiments of one thousand men. The warriors were mounted on small, sturdy horses known as mongol ponies. Temujin trained the warriors to ride in formation, turn, and attack together, and turned them into highly disciplined fighting units.
The Mongol army was composed of 100,000 mounted and lightly armored warriors. Their opponents often outnumbered them by hundreds or even thousands. But the Mongols were able to win battles by a combination of tactics, intelligence, and constant adaptation to the enemy’s tactics. As a result, Mongol armies rarely lost battles and always returned to fight another day.
Non-military achievements
The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in history, stretching from the Sea of Japan to Eastern Europe and north into the Arctic. The empire had multiple conquests and a complex system of governance that allowed it to keep control over each province and city, and to remain in constant contact with its population. The Mongols also made great strides in the development of technology.
The Mongols conquered most of China, but were unable to retain it. After the Ming forces retreated, the Mongols lost their southern expansion. This marked the end of the Golden Horde. The Mongols did not return to the Levant for nearly 200 years, but they launched several more invasions of the Levant. They also raided as far as Gaza before being driven out by various geopolitical factors.
Mongols were extremely skilled horsemen and mastered horsemanship at a young age. Their cavalry were incredibly fast and durable, and their horses had tremendous stamina. Their cavalry could travel 95 to 120 kilometers in a day. They fought using a variety of tactics to gain maximum results with the least number of casualties. Mongol cavalry units were divided into two categories, heavy and light, and responded to gongs to signal the start of an attack.
The Mongols also developed a variety of weapons. They were adept at siege warfare and learned to use gunpowder weapons that were previously used by their enemies. They also developed rockets and bombs that could be launched over city walls. The Mongols also developed triple-firing crossbows and large catapults. These weapons were able to shoot long distances and were powered by counterweights and torsion. They could even be mounted on ships.
